Static and Dynamic Routing

Routers forward packets hop-by-hop using routing tables: each entry is a prefix, next-hop, outgoing interface, and administrative distance. Static routes are simple but brittle at scale; dynamic protocols (OSPF, IS-IS, BGP) exchange reachability automatically.

Switching (L2) vs routing (L3)

Aspect	Layer 2 switching	Layer 3 routing
Forwarding decision	Destination MAC in frame	Destination IP — longest-prefix match
Scope	Single broadcast domain per VLAN	Between subnets and across WAN
Loops	STP/RSTP blocks redundant switch paths	Routing protocols + TTL prevent infinite IP loops
Host sends to…	Direct MAC if same subnet	Default gateway MAC when destination network is remote

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